Deuteronomy 32:8-9 (ESV):
"When the Most High gave to the nations their inheritance, when he divided mankind, he fixed the borders of the peoples according to the number of the sons of God. But the LORD's portion is his people, Jacob his allotted heritage."
In "The Unseen Realm," Michael Heiser posits a biblical worldview centered on a "divine council" – a heavenly host of divine beings (elohim) over which Yahweh, the God of Israel, presides as the Most High. This council, while subordinate to God, plays a significant role in the administration of the cosmos. Heiser argues that a pivotal moment in this supernatural drama occurs at the Tower of Babel. According to his interpretation, particularly of Deuteronomy 32:8-9 (using the Septuagint and Dead Sea Scrolls readings of "sons of God" instead of "sons of Israel"), when humanity rebelled at Babel, God "disinherited" the nations. He then assigned these nations to the dominion of various members of his divine council. Many of these lesser elohim, however, became corrupt and rebellious, actively leading their assigned nations into idolatry and wickedness. Thus, the "gods" worshipped by other nations in the Old Testament are not merely human inventions, but actual, albeit rebellious and illegitimate, divine beings.
This "Deuteronomy 32 worldview" offers a fascinating parallel and theological explanation for the ubiquitous polytheism of the Greco-Roman Hellenistic era. In that period, it was widely believed that different nations and cities had their own patron deities, and that these gods were actively involved in human affairs, wars, and the fates of peoples. Heiser's thesis suggests that the biblical narrative, far from being isolated, provides a behind-the-scenes explanation for this observable reality. The various "gods" of the Greco-Roman pantheon – Zeus, Ares, Athena, etc., each associated with specific places or peoples – would, from Heiser's perspective, correspond to these rebellious elohim who had been given authority over the nations after Babel. The New Testament, particularly in Paul's writings (e.g., Ephesians 6:12 regarding "rulers" and "authorities"), then speaks to the spiritual battle against these same fallen powers, highlighting the cosmic scope of Christ's victory over them and the ultimate reclamation of all nations for Yahweh.
Leaving Biblical/Judaic scholarship, let us purely reference Greek and Roman literature and analyze their great works without regard to Biblical apologetics.
The concept of nations, races, or peoples each having their own divine leader, often with a hierarchy among these deities and sometimes with competitive or moralistic undertones, is a recurring theme in ancient Greek and Roman literature. This is particularly evident in epic poetry, which often features divine intervention in human affairs and the patronage of specific gods for different groups.
The concept of nations, races, or peoples each having their own divine leader, often with a hierarchy among these deities and sometimes with competitive or moralistic undertones, is a recurring theme in ancient Greek and Roman literature. This is particularly evident in epic poetry, which often features divine intervention in human affairs and the patronage of specific gods for different groups.
The Iliad is perhaps the most vivid depiction of gods taking sides in mortal conflicts, directly associating themselves with particular nations or heroes. The Trojan War, at its core, is a human conflict greatly amplified and influenced by the divine arena.
The Olympian gods are clearly divided in their loyalties between the Achaeans (Greeks) and the Trojans.
Pro-Achaean Gods:
Pro-Trojan Gods:
Neutral/Overarching Authority:
Quote on Divine Competition:
In Book 20 of the Iliad, Zeus explicitly lifts his ban on the gods fighting, leading to direct divine combat:
"Now, you gods, go down, all of you, and whichever side you wish to help, help it! For if we leave Achilles to rage alone against the Trojans, he will in his fury sack Ilion even before its destined hour." (Homer, Iliad, Book 20, lines 24-27)
This passage clearly shows the gods' direct involvement and competitive nature in influencing human destinies and their alignment with particular sides.
There is a clear hierarchy with Zeus at the apex. While other gods may defy him or try to work around his will, ultimately his decisions are paramount.
The gods in Homer are not depicted in strictly "good" or "bad" terms. They are anthropomorphic, driven by personal passions, grudges, and desires. Their actions often reflect human vices and virtues on a grander scale. Hera is vindictive, Athena can be cunning, Apollo swift to anger, but they are also capable of showing favor, protection, and concern for their chosen mortals. Their "goodness" or "badness" is often relative to their favored nation/hero.
Virgil's Aeneid, the Roman epic, consciously echoes Homer but with a distinct Roman perspective on divine will and destiny. The foundational myth of Rome involves Aeneas's divinely guided journey.
Similar to the Iliad, the gods are divided, but here the conflict is explicitly framed around the destiny of Rome.
Pro-Trojan/Roman Gods:
Anti-Trojan/Roman Gods:
Quote on Divine Competition/Purpose:
Juno's opening lament reveals her deep-seated animosity and attempts to alter fate:
"Can heavenly minds such high resentment show, / Or exercise their spite in human woe? / So great the toil, to found the Roman line!" (Virgil, Aeneid, Book 1, lines 11-13, Dryden translation).
This highlights her "spite" and her direct opposition to the fated establishment of Rome.
Jupiter is the ultimate arbiter of fate and destiny. While Juno can delay and cause immense suffering, she cannot ultimately overturn Jupiter's will regarding Rome's future. The concept of fatum (fate) is paramount and often superior even to the individual desires of the gods.
The gods are more explicitly tied to the Roman concept of pietas (piety, duty, devotion). Venus embodies nurturing love, while Juno represents destructive wrath and ambition. Their actions are less arbitrary than in Homer; they serve larger narrative and thematic purposes connected to Rome's destiny and founding virtues. Juno's actions, while destructive, are often portrayed as stemming from a justifiable (from her perspective) grievance and her role as a powerful, if vengeful, deity.
While not focusing on "nations" in the same way as the epics, Hesiod's works establish the divine order and the relationship between gods and humanity, which implicitly shapes the destinies of different human groups.
Quote on Divine Oversight and Justice (general to humanity):
"For the son of Kronos, Zeus, has ordained this law to men: that fishes and wild beasts and winged birds should devour one another, since there is no justice in them; but to mankind he gave justice which proves for the best." (Hesiod, Works and Days, lines 276-280)
This quote highlights Zeus's role in establishing order and justice for mankind, a principle that would, by extension, affect the well-being and governance of various peoples.
Livy's historical account of Rome heavily emphasizes divine favor and intervention in the city's rise. While not explicitly stating that each nation has its "own god," the narrative frequently shows Roman success tied to their piety and the gods' support, especially Jupiter.
Divine Favor for Rome: Livy's history is replete with omens, prophecies, and direct divine interventions that affirm Rome's special relationship with the gods.
Quote on Roman piety and divine favor:
"Before anything else [Numa] decided that he must instill in his subjects the fear of the gods, this being the most effective measure with an ignorant, and at that time uncultured, people." (Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, Book 1, Section 19).
This illustrates the Roman belief that fear and reverence for the gods were foundational for a well-ordered society and thus, by implication, for national strength.